The Art of Hospitality - The Greeks and the Odyssey Essay -- essays re

Each culture treats strangers and guests with distinct differences from every other culture. One of the most hospitable cultures was that of the ancient Greeks, exemplified in Homers The Odyssey by both(prenominal) gracious hosts and guests. In Greece and The Odyssey, not only was good hospitality etiquette expected, but the added pressure from the conviction that the gods would punish the host if guests were treated without respect (whether they were poor or rich) further compelled excellent manners. The Odyssey illustrates the proper etiquette when dealing with guests.Whether friend or stranger, when a guest of any sort arrived the host would greet them and offer them food and beverage before any further conversation or engagement of any kind would occur. If the host had considerable wealth, a maid would bring out a basin of water in a graceful golden pitcher to rinse their hands, seen in news I (line 160) when Athena visits Telemachus, again in Book 4 (60) when Menelaus takes Telemachus and Athena as guests, and also in Book 7 when the King of the Phaeacians greets Odysseus. Appetizers, meats, and wines are all brought out and laid before the guest, as their plan of attack is seen as a celebration, as seen when Telemachus is hosting Athena, A staid housekeeper brought on bread to serve them,/appetizers aplenty too, lavishwith her bounty./A carver lifted platters of meat toward them,/meats of every sort (Book 1, 163-166) On several occasions, a particularly h...

Marketing Analysis of Clarion :: essays research papers

Clarion AM/FM CD PlayerThe Clarion AM/FM CD Player w/ CD Changer Control that I purchased was manufactured in china. The country of origin shouldnt be all that surprising to me, since China and Japan are probably the two leading manufacturers when it comes to audio technology in the world today. China has long been ahead of the United States on enjoyment technology such as audio players or television sets.The intended use is obviously to be utilized as a CD knock down to be installed into a cars dashboard component. The box it is contained in is rather simple a black backdrop with a frontal overhear of the deck on the front and a strip of red crossing the box diagonally, fading into the black giving it a luminous appearance. Although this packaging envision seems almost overly simple, it is its simple ness that appeals to the consumers eye. The black backdrop stands out and the red stripe gives it a sleek look that appeals to car owners expression for a new stereo system to pla ce in their car.Im not entirely sure how climate considerations or ingredients would figure into a product such as this. As far as the directions for use go, there is a detailed instruction booklet included that contains instructions for condition up the options on the CD Player as good as how to operate its multifunction. There are two languages displayed on the box, English and French, which works well for this area since the proximity to Canada brings in a lot of French-speaking consumers. In other parts of the country however, they may want to add in a Spanish translation.Size and serviceability most probably vary with the place of purchase, the size is adequate for its purpose and intended use, there is a countenance you can fill out if you wish, and some places of purchase will install it into your automobile for you. Shipping distance wouldnt be an issue here since they manufacture and ship products such as these, and it is not difficult or expensive for a store to acquire more of such a product when it runs out.

Mid-Term Break by Seamus Heaney. Essay -- English Literature

Mid-Term Break by Seamus Heaney.Mid-Term Break by the poet Seamus Heaney is about a personalexperience that he has encountered. It deals with the issues of lifeand death in a family and also how different people cope.The title at first suggests that the rime is going to be about aholiday, but as you get into the poem further, you realise that thetitle has a far deeper and darker meaning...In the first stanza, we learn that Seamus Heaney is in a college sickbay waiting to be picked up. You get shadowy when he is beingpicked up his neighbour, which could indicate that something serioushas happened.Time is passing slowly, and Heaney uses exclusivelyiteration to show this.Counting bells knelling classes to a close.Already so early in the poem, we sense that something is wrong due tothe poets word choice of knelling. Knelling is when a church bellrings to signify a funeral. The clues be keep abreast more apparent as you movethrough the stanzas, and are very effective in arousing yoursu spicions.When Seamus Heaney arrives home, he is greeted by his father crying onthe porch. A stereotypical male would commonly hold back his feelingsand Heaney uses parenthesis to show this.In the porch i met my father crying---He had always taken funerals in his stride---And Big Jim Evans saying it was a to a great extent blow.Obviously something had caused him great pain, and parenthesis iseffective in showing that normally Heaneys father would bottle up hisfeelings, and be strong for everyone else, taking things in hisstride. slowdown in the next verse.The baby cooed and laughed and rocked the pramThis extract shows that the baby is oblivious to its surroundings andto what is happen... ...ld, and was killed in a road trafficaccident...A four al-Qaida box, a foot for every year.The poet is emphasizing the fact that his brother was just an innocentchild, and did not deserve to die at such an early peak in his life.He places this line separate from the rest of the stanzas and th isdraws your attention to it making you think about how precious lifeis, and just when you think that you have it all figured out,something happens that makes you question the purpose of life again.We think that the natural order is for adults to die before childrenand that is why it is such a hard thing to come to terms with when achild dies in a family.A point i think that Heaney was trying to stress to the reader, isthat no matter what tragedies happen in life, in the end we just haveto move on and accept the past so we can move onto the future.

Huck Finn :: essays research papers

The Adventures of huckabackleberry Finn, by Mark Twain, is a storey of a young man who finds himself in many unpredictable situations. In the novel, Huck is constantlychanging his setting. Either he is on the land, at the shore of the mighty Mississippi river, or upon a small raft floating overmasterstream. Since Huck lives on both the shore and the river, the reader is able to compargon the differences among them. To Huck the river has sense of freedom. Compared to keep on the shore, Huck believes the river should be his home. For his companion, the jamboree slave, Jim, life is everlastingly dangerous because of the price on his head. Also there are always hidden hazards that can pop up at any time. Huck Finn, the intelligence of the town drunkard, has had a hard time spiritedness with the leave Douglas and her sister, Miss Watson. Huck grew up living wild out in the open, just outlet as he pleased. immediately he living in a house, with two ladies that are very strict with manners. Although, he doesnt runaway game to the woods, he still wishes he could go clog to the diffused living in the uncivilized outdoors. When Hucks father learns of his wealth, he kidnaps Huck, and takes him back to acabin on the other side of the river. After perennial beatings Huck escapes and makes the scene look as if he had been murdered. He then encompasss on capital of Mississippi Island, and returns to his life of freedom. Also on the Island is Jim, Miss Watsons runaway slave. After finding out that the men of the town are searching for Jim, the two cargo up on a raft and sail down the river. Hucks life has changed very drastically through these course of events. When he was living in town he learned manners, and how to be civilized. Now he is floating peacefully down the Mississippi River without a care in the world. For Jim, life on the river is always threatening. They must travel at night, and hide during the days. Jims plan is to go to the Ohio river, an d travel north into the free states. One night, in a storm they float past Cairo and cannot sail back upstream, to the Ohio. Jims secret is put in jeopardy, when two frauds, are picked up by Huck. They want Huck about the presence of Jim, on the raft, but Huck is very clever with his answer.Huck Finn essays research papers The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain, is a story of a young man who finds himself in many unpredictable situations. In the novel, Huck is constantlychanging his setting. Either he is on the land, at the shore of the mighty Mississippi river, or upon a small raft floating downstream. Since Huck lives on both the shore and the river, the reader is able to compare the differences between them. To Huck the river has sense of freedom. Compared to life on the shore, Huck believes the river should be his home. For his companion, the runaway slave, Jim, life is always dangerous because of the price on his head. Also there are always hidden hazards that ca n pop up at any time. Huck Finn, the son of the town drunkard, has had a hard time living with the Widow Douglas and her sister, Miss Watson. Huck grew up living wild out in the open, just going as he pleased. Now he living in a house, with two ladies that are very strict with manners. Although, he doesnt runaway back to the woods, he still wishes he could go back to the easy living in the uncivilized outdoors. When Hucks father learns of his wealth, he kidnaps Huck, and takes him back to acabin on the other side of the river. After repeated beatings Huck escapes and makes the scene look as if he had been murdered. He then hides on Jackson Island, and returns to his life of freedom. Also on the Island is Jim, Miss Watsons runaway slave. After finding out that the men of the town are searching for Jim, the two load up on a raft and sail down the river. Hucks life has changed very drastically through these course of events. When he was living in town he learned manners, and how to be civilized. Now he is floating peacefully down the Mississippi River without a care in the world. For Jim, life on the river is always threatening. They must travel at night, and hide during the days. Jims plan is to go to the Ohio river, and travel north into the free states. One night, in a storm they float past Cairo and cannot sail back upstream, to the Ohio. Jims secret is put in jeopardy, when two frauds, are picked up by Huck. They ask Huck about the presence of Jim, on the raft, but Huck is very clever with his answer.

GANGS :: Gang Essays

GANGSIm doing a report on gangs. I need to start false by saying that a roach ofthe stuff Im rough to say, I think is bull shit. I think this because Iam in a gang and do, or did drugs. I also have to disagree with some of,no actually a lot of the stuff I am about to say.Before I babble on about gangs I have to say one thing. Not allgangs are based around Latinos and or African-Americans. Nor are all thegangs from Los Angeles area, but the Barrio is in East Los Angeles.There are many different gangs around. Some consist ofAfrican-Americans, Latinos, Skinheads, Caucasians, and Asians. Some aremixed. A lot of the gangs Ive heard about and are friends with, mainlyconsist of colored-folk. In my gang for instance, we have five Caucasians,the rest of us are either black, latino, or persistent like me. However, we donot have any asians in our gang. And no, we are not racist towardshispanics.Theres a gang that is called The Satanic Cult, which is into somepretty unearthly ri tuals. They consisted of animal and human sacrifices andpeople with brown hair were forbidden and non-caucasians.There are many different gangs. Now theres one I am bopnwith, the Necronomicon, who jumped me and my homeboy (whos Latino) justbecause we werent white.Another one would belong to the punks. Which I do not have aproblem with. The only two punk gangs I know of, do not call themselvesGangs but they call themselves a crew. They call themselves CFH,(Cowboys From Hell) and the other one is the Martians.A lot of the gang members come from broken homes, or something iswrong. So the kids end up in gangs doing drugs, drinking, smoking,committing crimes, and getting into violence. Some of us consider our gangfamily. Some of the gangs actually do have real families in them.Theres the problem of joining gangs. I got jumped into my gang.But thats one of the most common ways. The other ways are to have sexwith someone whos already in it. Or you can get walked in. Some othe rways which are sick and twisted that Ive heard of are the leader holds aknife to the newcomers throat. If the leader thinks the newcomer is lyinghe can slit his or her throat.

GANGS :: Gang Essays

GANGSIm doing a report on gangs. I need to start off by saying that a volume ofthe stuff Im about to say, I think is bull shit. I think this because Iam in a gang and do, or did drugs. I as well lay down to disagree with some of,no actually a lot of the stuff I am about to say.Before I babble on about gangs I have to say one thing. Not allgangs are based around Latinos and or Afri slew-Americans. Nor are all thegangs from Los Angeles area, but the Barrio is in East Los Angeles.There are many different gangs around. both(prenominal) consist ofAfrican-Americans, Latinos, Skinheads, Caucasians, and Asians. Some aremixed. A lot of the gangs Ive heard about and are friends with, mainlyconsist of colored-folk. In my gang for instance, we have five Caucasians,the rest of us are either black, latino, or dark like me. However, we donot have any asians in our gang. And no, we are not racist towardshispanics.Theres a gang that is called The Satanic Cult, which is into somepret ty weird rituals. They consisted of animal and human sacrifices andpeople with cook hair were forbidden and non-caucasians.There are many different gangs. Now theres one I am familiarwith, the Necronomicon, who jumped me and my homeboy (whos Latino) justbecause we werent white.Another one would break down to the punks. Which I do not have aproblem with. The only two punk gangs I know of, do not call themselvesGangs but they call themselves a crew. They call themselves CFH,(Cowboys From Hell) and the other one is the Martians.A lot of the gang members come from broken homes, or something iswrong. So the kids end up in gangs doing drugs, drinking, smoking,committing crimes, and getting into violence. Some of us consider our gangfamily. Some of the gangs actually do have real families in them.Theres the problem of joining gangs. I got jumped into my gang. scarcely thats one of the most common ways. The other ways are to have sexwith someone whos already in it. Or you can g et walked in. Some otherways which are sick and twisted that Ive heard of are the leader holds aknife to the newcomers throat. If the leader thinks the newcomer is lyinghe can slit his or her throat.

Morality and Generally Good Morals Essay

Morals, values and beliefs are all very similar in a way even though they whitethorn have different scientific definitions. Everyone in the world has morals, values and beliefs, although they may differ and have different roles in each others lives theses trio things all have an impact on how we choose to live our lives in some way. According to the online Merriam Webster dictionary, a moral is defined as something concerned with the principles of objurgate and wrong behavior and the goodness or badness of human character. How we act in certain situations is oft based on our morals.With morals, the way one was elevated plays a big factor on whether or not that person makes morally right or wrong decisions. More often than not, someone who had a st commensurate and well-rounded upbringing will make more morally right choices in their life compared to someone with less family influence or support. sometimes there are exceptions with this, but generally good morals are usually inst illed in people at a young age which wad last a lifetime. A moral can also serve as a lesson or theme which is why the phrase the moral of the accounting exists.With that being said, it is possible for someone to gain moral values through and through learning lessons through personal or others life experiences. By learning lessons through experiences it allows us to have a better understanding on how to act if a similar experience arises again. One moral value that my parents always disturbed me to have was to be honest with everyone. They taught me that with honest actions comes more respect and trust from others, which will be very beneficial in my personal and professional life. comfort is defined as the regard that something is held to deserve the importance, worth, or usefulness of something by the online Oxford Dictionary. Values are the components of peoples lives that they find important and purposeful. Peoples values often change throughout their lives as their circumst ances change. Personally, my values are education, family, friends and money. All of these are important aspects to me which I find necessary to be content with my life. If I didnt find education valuable to me I would not be enrolled in school right now.Also, without my family and friends, I would not be who I am today since they serve as a great support system and offer value to my life. Money is important because without it I would not be able to support myself while away at school . For example I would not be able to buy necessary items such as books and supplies to empower me the best chance at succeeding in college. As time goes on these values may change to my career, my children and more things that would be more meaningful to me as I get older in age.

Factors that affect the communication process Essay

There are various reckons that affect the communication process. Among many of the factors some are very important and play a very important role throughout society, cultural, ethical and individual ways of perspective and communication. Throughout life people have and/or will be faced with the challenge of playing out these roles in society. For example, there are different cultures around the world. In some culture women are to be cover up at all times and are married off to as trade for cattle or money to their father. Where in cultures women are save to dress and marry by there choice. These two women will experience culture shock while communicating with each other. Culture is the values, attitudes and morals, someone is opinion that carry over into their fond lives. By taken the time to make sure we as people can cultural communication it can curb down most of the confusing in oeuvre, school and just maybe the world. cultural identify also is an important factor that affe cts the communication process, because of what is taught cultural and/or in people homes. The ethnicity plays in how two co-workers from different and same cultures interact with one another. For example, in the United States of America during slavery most White Americans where taught and believed they were higher-ranking when communicating with African-Americans so the communication was only a one direction channel. When African-American communication between each other back then where thru songs and marking. Ethnical identify is a very touchy subject all over the world and causesracial profiling among all Ethnical groups. The most important factor that these minority races consider are their backgrounds. Ethnical issues can arise due to terminations, promotions, and bonuses.The individual identity is also an important factor that impacts communication. An individual communicates with others depended upon their own social imagination. This can play a role in which supervisor is ad mired in the workplace and willing to work with you, or who is most resented. Once others stool this they accept it, and find ways to work around with butremove themselves from the person outside of a work environment. This includes someones own constitution traits and how they esteem themselves.Finally the last factor to be discussed is societal identity. This references the roles others play in society. Some people may object to others actions, because they have different backgrounds. In the workplace younger works are said to be better at handle the rapid pace of how things change with technology in the workplace than older worker. This is not a true statement however this is the depiction of society. The roles people paly such as a supervisor. It allows us to present ourselves a reliable way towards our supervisors. I for one have taught and seen older coworkers take the time to learn and catch up with the pace of the change in the workplace.

Carpool: Automobile and Transportation Options Essay

For many Frederick County residents, commuting 1-2 hours a day to get to and from their DC area jobs is the norm. According to one capital of the United bows Post poll, Washington-area residents spend nearly twice as long getting to work as people in the rest of the nation. They also get stuck in traffic jams three times more often than commuters in the rest of the country (Ginsburg). Yet, most commuters in our area still prefer to drive themselves to work.When weigh the pick to either drive yourself to work or carpool, it would be smart to consider the benefits and drawbacks of both, as well as to take an inventory of how for each one option fits your priorities, goals, and preferences. A carpool is made up of two or more people who share a ride. The obvious benefits of carpooling complicate reduced traffic congestion and improve air quality while some of the more personal benefits of carpooling are being able to relax or read while someone else drives, save on the cost of ga s, reducing wear and tear on your vehicle, and obtaining possible discounts on auto insurance (Transportation Options).It is also most likely to be faster, cheaper, cleaner, and less crowded than public transportation (Zimmerman). Recently, the Internet has made it easier to connect with locals that want to share a ride. Disadvantages of carpooling whitethorn include having to ride with strangers (or putting yourself stunned there and making the effort to meet new people), not having the freedom to run errands on the way home if needed, and having to remember carpool etiquette (Zimmerman). People sharing rides typically live and/or work near each other and have a similar work schedule which could be difficult to arrange (Yeager). unmatchable disadvantage of being a carpool driver is the potential legal action from passengers in the case of an accident. Although most metropolitan area carpool organizations these days offer a guaranteed ride home service of some sort (Transportation Options), you would need to find alternate transportation on a day when your carpool driver is dreary or on vacation. impetuous ones consume vehicle, the preferred method of getting where you need to go for decades now, has plenty of its own advantages and disadvantages of course.Advantages of driving yourself include being in control of where you go and at what speed, the ability to have a conversation on speaker phone (hands-free, mind you) without having to worry most annoying or offending other passengers, and the ability to listen to your own music at whichever volume you desire. An article on Associated Content, a news Website for Yahoo, suggests that drivers may also choose their car over ride sharing because of conflicting schedules, unpredictable overtime, long hours, sudden demands and unexpected deadlines (Nyholm).One of the biggest disadvantages of commuting in your own car is the cost. The average cost of owning and operating a vehicle in 2009 was 54 cents per mile , or over $14,000 per year, according to AAAs 2009 Edition of thrust Costs as listed on the Commuter Connections Website (Transportation Options). Even so, owning and driving a vehicle is somewhat of an American standard and a right of passage. Driving is a responsibility people take on with a sense of pride.Edward McDonagh, a Sociology professor who served as dean of the College of Social and Behavioral Sciences at Ohio State University, was once quoted as saying The car has become a secular sanctuary for the individual, his shrine to the self, his mobile Walden Pond (Driving Quotes). People love their cars so much that they are willing to keep on driving despite the expense, the high volume of traffic, and the adverse effects it may have on the planet. Carpooling is in spades more earth-friendly, while driving is obviously more self-satisfying for a multitude of reasons.It is important to think about where your priorities lie whether or not you want to spring more of an effort t o go green, help reduce rush hour congestion, or save a little money and wear and tear on your car or whether your life dictates that you have the freedom to come and go as you please. When deciding whether or not carpooling is right for you, it makes sense to explore each option, to compare all of the advantages and disadvantages of both driving yourself and carpooling, and to think about which best fits your lifestyle.

Academic Research Akunna Onyedum

ASPECTS OF THE PHONOLOGY OF GUNGANCHI LANGUAGE BABATUNDE, Oluwatobi Olayemi 07/15CB045 A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF linguals AND NIGERIAN LANGUAGES, FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN ILORIN NIGERIA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (B. A. Hons) IN LINGUISTICS MAY, 2011. CERTIFICATION This es think has been read and nurseonical as meeting the requirements of De berthment of Linguistics and Nigerian styles, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. _________________________________________________ DR. (MRS. ) B. E. AROKOYODATE Project Supervisor ________________________________________________ PROF. A. S. ABDUSSALAMDATE Head of De varyment _________________________________________________ EXTERNAL EXAMINERDATE DEDICATION This stomach melt is dedicated to the ecclesiastic God, the Alpha and Omega, who gives wisdom and excellence. My d pinnule father, Engr. O. A. Falade, who has been at that place for me up till this time. You argon my hero. May God reward you. ACKNOLWEDGEMENTS My pro piece gratitude goes to the Lord for seeing me through my studies at the University of Ilorin. He has been the Alpha and Omega, my help, inspiration and the source of knowledge and wisdom.He al superstar deserves my appreciation. Also, my gratitude goes to my lovely p arnts, ENGR. AND MRS. O. A. FALADE for their love, c be, advice, guidance and for providing for altogether my educational needs. The Almighty God testament hand you long life, and enable you to reap the fruits of your labour (Amen). You ar the best p bents in the world, I love you d advance(prenominal). I as well appreciate the great efforts of my able supervisor, Dr. (Mrs. ) B. E. Arokoyo, who channelise me through in my search work, she gave me her time and mformer(a)ly assistance despite the inconvenience. May the Lord be with you and reward you (Amen). I also appreciate completely my lecturers.I want to also appreciat e the love and prayers of my kid brformer(a) BABATUNDE JOHN TEMITOPE. And my aunts Mrs. O. Y. Philips and Miss Olushola Faniyi. I also want to appreciate the effort of Ogunbiyi Abayomi. You both attain been wonderful. My sincere gratitude goes to my averant Corporal Labbo Alkali who helped me in acquiring all unavoidable information about Gunganchi. May the Lord reward you richly (Amen). Also, I appreciate my fri hold ons Bakare Bimbo, Olagbenro Bola, Dikko Oluwaseun, Adebayo Funke, Saka Tokunbo, Ogunbowale Tobi, Adekoya Oluwaseun, Ajagunna Gideon, Bamidele Bukola, Oyeniran Gbolagade Adebayo Adewale.I also appreciate the effort of my pastor, Pastor Tunde and those who have in mavin air or the other contributed to the success of this research. thank you all. TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Pagei Certificationii Dedicationiii Acknowledgements iv Table of Con ten-spottsvi CHAPTER matchless 1. 0Introduction 1 1. 1General Backg fill out1 1. 2Historical Background of Gunganchi People2 1. 3Sociocultural Background or Profile of the Gunganchi People4 1. 4Genetic Classification of Gunganchi10 1. 5Scope and Organization of Study 11 1. 6Data Collection12 1. 7Data Analysis13 1. 8Review of the chosen Theoretical Framework13 CHAPTER TWO BASIC phonologic CONCEPTS . 0Introduction 21 2. 1Phonology21 2. 2Sound Inventory of Gunganchi24 2. 3 phonologic Description of Gunganchi Consonants and their Distribution 28 2. 4 vowel sounds42 2. 5Distribution of Vowels45 2. 6Distribution of Nasalized Vowels51 2. 7Tonal Inventory54 2. 8Syllable Inventory 56 2. 9Distinctive Features 59 CHAPTER THREE PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN GUNGANCHI 3. 0Introduction 70 3. 1Phonological Processes70 CHAPTER FOUR TONAL PROCESSES AND SYLLABLE PROCESSES 4. 0Introduction 78 4. 1 wraith System in Gunganchi78 4. 2 wait ons of pace in Gunganchi82 4. 3Tonal Processes83 4. 4Syllable Structure85 4. 5Syllable Structure Rule in Gunganchi89CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, FINDINGS/OBSERVATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 5. 0Summary93 5. 1Finding/Observations94 5. 2Recomm stopping pointations95 5. 3Conclusion96 References97 CHAPTER ONE 1. 0INTRODUCTION This chapter is aimed at talk abouting the case study of the Gungawa peck who speak Gunganchi voice communication. It will note their general background, historical background, sociocultural profile, the genetic salmagundi of Gunganchi wrangle. This chapter will also discuss the scope and shaping of study, the chosen theoretical framework, data collection, and the data compendium for this project work. 1. 1GENERAL BACKGROUNDThe Gunganchi people are a tribe that are also inspected the Bareshe people by their Hausa neighbours which means Island Dwellers, it was told they were given this chance upon due to their closeness to lakes and rivers. Among themselves, they are comm besides called Gungawa, Tsureja, Bareshe or Yaurawa people. Their wrangle has discordent names like Gunganchi, Tsureshe, Gunga or Tsureja and the name given to their land is both Reshe or Gungu. The present Gunganchi people are the tribe who fled to the nearby Island of Niger in the mid nineteenth century and lastly settled in a new site called Gungu or Yelwa.The Gunganchi people are said to be the line of credital inhabitants of Yauri. During the British regime, the arouse of Yauri as an emirate and the state of Yelwa as the seat of the amir of Yauri confirmed that both Yauri and Yelwa became Hausarized as a result of their contact with the Hausa people. Today, the Yauri people speak mostly Hausa verbiage. The Gunganchi people lived in islets ( real atrophied islands) and shores of the Niger above Bussa until the creation of Kainji Lake in 1974 which disrupted their settlement and their living outside Kebbi disk operating system. 1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF GUNGANCHI PEOPLE According to oral history, the Gunganchi people has unlike histories that has been narrated which associated with their origin that will be discussed be downhearted-pitched. I n the nineteenth century, a descendant of a warrior called kasira who is also kn testify as Kachin allied with the Hausa soldiers to conquer the territory in the ingrained North who later settled with his co-fighters in the present Yauri town. A essential speaker of Gunganchi who is known as Agmalafiya believe that the Gunganchi people came from Kabbawa.He said they were hunters from Katsina sound out and further explained that whateverwhat people said the Gunganchi people are from the other Yauris ethnic groups which are Shangawa, Kambari, Kabbawa or Sarkawa, Dukawa etc. Another history told us of their trace to the Songhai warriors who came from Mali to seek territorial control and they eventually settled in Yauri and parts of Lopa and Laru (Gunganchis neighbouring areas). From the histories narrated above, it is obvious that the Gunganchi people has no specific history concerning their origin.They are divergent in their historical roots. 1. 2. 1Population The Gunganchi peopl e were about forty to sixty thousand in 1993. About thrity- 5 percent lived outside Yauri Local Government in Kebbi State, sixty percent lived in Yauri town, nine percent in Kotangora, Bussa and Borgu Local Government and wizard percent in Kiama Local Government Area in Kwara State. Back to 1990, the population of the speakers in Yauri were referred to as Yaurawa or Reshewa in Hausa language.According to Agmalafiya who was menti aned earlier, the Gunganchi people were called Yaurawa by Queen Amina of Zaria but generally called Gungawa among the Gunganchi in Diaspora and sometimes call themselves Bareshe, which is the plural, or Ureshe, which is the singular. 1. 3SOCIOCULTURAL BACKGROUND OR PROFILE OF THE GUNGANCHI PEOPLE According to the Oxford Advanced Leaners Dictionary, culture is the way of life, the customs and beliefs, art and social organization of a particular country or group. The Gunganchi people have a social and cultural profile that is similar to that of their neighbou ring ethnic group, Hausa.It is said that their lifestyle is center on on the Emirates system. The Gunganchi people have their sociocultural beliefs which are expressed in their culture, mode of dressing, occupation, religion, festivals, marriage system, naming watching, burial ceremony, their education system and governmental administration. 1. 3. 1Culture The Bareshe (Gunganchi) people are heightsly cultured which reflect in their mode of dressing, greetings, occupation and body adornment like decorating the womans legs with tattoos and heavy tribal attach on her face during the wedding ceremony. . 3. 2Mode of Dressing The Gunganchi peoples mode of dressing in the olden days is different from their dressing in these redbrick days. In the olden days, they utilise to dress in animal skin, speckle in these modern days, they dress in Banbariga which is the traditional dress for men while the women dress in loose covered clothing with a local embroidery scarf which is tied aro und the womans body to walk off the sun. They are mostly dressed in loose robe for relaxation. 1. 3. 3 Occupation The Gunganchi people are mostly farmers and fishermen.Their major crops are guinea corn, beans, rice, and onions while the fishing equipment which is a fish cage is called Suru and Hauwuya in Gunganchi language. The people are also known for their provokeoe and mat making. 1. 3. 4 Religion The Gunganchi people are mostly Muslims and few traditional worshippers and very little Christians. 1. 3. 5Festivals The festivals done in Gunganchi are called Anipo festival and Idembe. Festival. The blood of animals like goat or bushmeat is used as sacrifices to their gods during the festival.During the festival, a round seat is created by the people when eating. Such sittings are also formed at events like wedding, naming ceremony, sallah festival and at relaxation joints. 1. 3. 6 Marriage System of the Gunganchi People The Gunganchi has a distinct way by which marriage is done. It shows a lazy man cannot marry every Gunganchi skirt because marriage is said to be a bit difficult most especially for the men. Firstly, a man must inform his parents if he is in love with a lady. Then, the mans parents must make their sons put downest known to the ladys parents.He will therefore farm for the ladys family he intends to marry from ahead giving their consent. The farming duration is not specified, the man is said to stop the farming when ladys father is satisfied and the final consent will be given to the mans family. The ladys family will past inform his relatives formally about their daughters courtship with the man before the wedding date is chosen. According to Muauzu, the marriage or engagement ceremony is base on Islamic rites whereby the bride price (Zadaki) will be paid. The bride will be decorated with tattoos on her legs and heavy tribal marks on her face.Foods eaten at the ceremony are guinea corn pap, which is served in the morning and rice with f ish soup and burukutu is served at dusk. Their sitting position is related to that of the festivals as mentioned earlier they sit round a dish of guinea corn pap on a mat, their sitting culture is the same with the Hausas. Hence, the Gunganchi people inter marry with the Hausas. 1. 3. 7Naming honoring The Gunganchi do their naming ceremony seven days after the infants birth and its hair will be shaved. sift or guinea corn pap is served at the ceremony with people sitting round the food.Therefore, the child will be circumcised after ten years. 1. 3. 8Burial Ceremony Like most tribes, the Gunganchi celebrate the expiration of aged person and mourn the death of a young person. They investigate sudden or unusual death by consulting the oracle called Gigo (true god) or Ujigo (a god of thunder and rain). The oracle will make the spirit of the deceased to revenge for his or her death by killing the person who is responsible for his or her death. However, this practice is peculiar to t he local or extreme Gunganchi people. 1. 3. 9Education SystemThe Gunganchi value the Western education, they give education to both their potent and fe masculine children. They have schools they also make use of their personal houses as schools. 1. 3. 10 Political Administration The Gunganchi adopted the system of their neighboring tribe (Hausa) which is the Emirates system because it is a multi-ethnic area that consist Yelwa, Lopa, Yauri, Laru people which co-exist with them. The Emirs palace is situated in Yelwa, thus, the Gunganchi are the basic settlers in Yauri. The official Emir is the radiation patternr of all the ethnic groups under Yauri.During the British regime, recognition was given to the Yauri emirate and Gungu (Island) district of the Yauri Local Government which are now the center of Reshe (Gunganchi) population. In the political administration of the Gunganchi people, succession is not by hereditary because the Emir must be appointed, despite the fact that a Gu nganchi man was the first Emir of Yauri. The Emir must have some qualities before he can be appointed, like he must be an elderly person, famous and well-thought-of among the ethnic groups made up of Yauri.When a new Emir is appointed, turbaning will be done as a sign of leadership. The Emir rules the territory with his local chiefs called Sariki in areas like Gungunsariki, Banha, Rekubolo, Toro, Zamari, Jalubabu etc. Presently, the Local Government Chairman is responsible for the executive function of Yauri and other governmental activities are executed by the Kebbi State Government. However, most of the Gunganchi people are bilingual, (they speak both Gunganchi and Hausa) but the majority speaks Gunganchi at home especially the youths. Thus, the language of the emirate is Hausa with high prestige. . 4GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF GUNGANCHI Genetic assortment is the sub-grouping of all relevant languages into genetic nodes (group of languages in each of which one language is more clos ely related to the other in that group than to some(prenominal) language outside the group). The basis for genetic classification is the idea that group of languages that share certain systemic resemblances have inherited those similarities from a common origin. Thus, genetic classification makes cardinal statements. First, it affirms that certain languages are infact related to each other (i. e. hare a common ancestor). Second, it specifies how the languages are interrelated in the form of a leg diagram. Gunganchi language falls under the Niger-Kordofanian language family. African Language Afro-AsiaticNiger KordofanianNilo SaharanKhoisan Mande tonic Benue Congo AtlanticVolta Congo Kordofanian OkoDefoidKainjiIdomoidEdoidWolof Western KainjiEastern Kainji KamukuKainji LakeGunganchi (Gungawa)KambariBassaLopa 1. 5SCOPE AND ORGANIZATION OF STUDY This work is limited to the aspects of the phonemics of Gunganchi language and it is divided into five chapters.Chapter one deals with the i ntroductory part, which includes the general background, historical background, sociocultural profile of Gunganchi people, genetic classification of Gunganchi language, scope and organization of study, data collection, data analysis and the review of the chosen theoretical framework. Chapter dickens deals with the basic phonological concepts that consumes the sound inventory of Gunganchi language whereby the tonal inventory and syllable inventory of the language of study shall be discussed and the sound distributions which includes classifiable features.Chapter terzetto is establish on the phonological affectes found in Gunganchi language. Then, chapter quaternion will boil down on the tonal and syllable processes of Gunganchi language. Chapter five will summarize and conclude the work. 1. 6DATA COLLECTION In this research work, the method used for our data collection is the cipher translation method from English language to the project language which is Gunganchi based on th e Ibadan 400 rule booklist. There was a direct interview with the language helper, thus, data elicitation was carried out with the countersignaturelist recorded on sound cassette.Informants Data NameCorporal Labbo Alkali OccupationSoldier Age 40 years ReligionMuslim Languages spoken obscure from Gunganchi Hausa and English Number of years spent in Reshe (Gunganchi) 20 years 1. 7DATA ANALYSIS To ensure an accurate data analysis in this research work, all the data collected were carefully and correctly written, tone marked and transcribed. The data collected were used according to how the native speaker used them without imposing every extra rules or norms. 1. REVIEW OF THE CHOSEN THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The framework adopted for this research work is Generative Phonology, which was developed by Chomsky and Halle in the early 1950s it is a component of generative grammar. This framework assigns the correct phonetic re foundings to utterances in such(prenominal) a way as to reflect a native speakers internalized grammar. According to Oyebade (2008 9), Generative Phonology is a theory which is built on the insight of taxonomic phonemics even while remodeling the focus of phonological analysis.The major motivation for this theoretical framework was the clash between theoretical assumptions and lingual data under the theory of classical (taxonomic) phonemics. Generative phonemics took off at maximum speed in the 1960s, following the works of Chomsky and Halle (published in 1968 as Sound Pattern of English (SPE). This theory argues that the taxonomic access code of classical phonemics was not adequate enough to address appropriately the phenomenon of charitable speech.The proponents of this new school of phonemics suggest that an adequate theory of phonology must account for a) The phenomenon of language acquisition b) The puzzling fact that man can still understand the speech of some other even when this speech is defective and c) The native speakers intuitio n about the physical make-up of the speech of his language. 1. 8. 1The Structure of Generative Phonology Generative phonology assumes three very crucial components the underlying representation, the phonetic representation and the rules which link the both together that is called the phonological rules.These components will be reviewed below. 1. 8. 1. 1Underlying Representation Oyebade (2008 12) assumes underlying representation to be an bunco representation existing in the linguistic competence of the native speaker. The underlying representation is the most basic form of a word before any phonological rules have been applied to it. Underlying representation shows what a native speaker knows about the abstract underlying phonology of the language. At this level, items with invariant heart have identical representation.The underlying representation is also known as the phonological representation, thus, the ability (competence) of a native speaker to compute a clip is referred t o as the phonological representation and this competence can be scientifically investigated. There is an assumption of an underlying level where there is a one-to-one correspondence between form and meaning and which is exactly the same from one competent speaker to another which explains the puzzling reaction of children in the acquisition process.Since the child shares the same competence (and therefore the same underlying representation) as the big, it is reasonable to assume that the child will expect the same output as the adult will expect. The child may not be able to produce such an output since his production capability is slower in the acquisition process than his competence. The assumption of an underlying representation which accounts for the rapid processing of defective input.Both interlocutors have a shared competence which is accurate and invariant the decoder part participant thus has a proto fiber with which he can re building the defective utterance of the enco der. Also, the underlying representation has the property of being encoded in typical features (these features will be discussed in the next chapter). This assumption is motivated by the fact that language seems to target these features in making its choices rather than divides. 1. 8. 1. 2 The phonic Representation The phonetic representation is the form of a word that is spoken and heard. It is also known as the surface level.Phonological structure reflects the linguistic competence of the native speaker to compute a phonetic representation for the potentially infinite number of sentences generated by the syntactic component of the grammar. We can say that there is no speaker of a language that has heard all the sentences in his language but speaker has the ability to understand any sentence heard. Phonetic representation indicates how the lexical item is to be realized in speech. It is characterized by degree of narrowness such that, at the very least, any devil sounds that ar e distinguished in any human language are differently represented.Generative phonology seems to consider this level as being vain and not worth too much attention except, perhaps as a source for the verification and justification of the proposed underlying representation. 1. 8. 13 Phonological Rules Phonological rules map underlying representation onto phonological representations. They delete, insert, or change segments, or change the features of segments. They are said to show the derivational sequence or bridle-path of an item in its journey from the underlying level to the phonetic level. They must be able to capture the phonological phenomenon in the simplest form.There are two fibres of rules in phonological rules feature changing rules and fill-in rules. The feature changing rules change the features of the input to that of the output. However, the other kind of rules called fill-in rules are rules, as the name implies, which fill in empty slots. Phonological rules have to be precise in a scientific account of linguistic phenomena. It was therefore suggested that the rules should have their own format. For instance, a rule can say insert a high front vowel between a cluster of conformables and we can have another rule which says insert a high front vowel after a word-final concurring(a).These rules can be formalized thus a. O(i/C____C b. O(i/C____ As you can retain from the formalization of the two rules, they are identical in input and output. Furthermore, they have a lot of similarities in the environs. If the rules are left like this, that is, as two separate rules, the implied claim will be that these are two separate and distinct processes. This is intuitively incorrect and it loses a linguistically pregnant generalization. These two rules can then be collapsed into one and to capture the linguistically significant fact that we are dealing with the same process.Thus (a) and (b) can be combined as in (c) below C c. O(i/C that is, a high fro nt vowel is inserted either between two amenables or after a consonant at word final position. In phonological rules, notational devices are applied. They are conventions which make it achievable to combine distinct but related phonological rules in a single statement rules may be collapsed in this way only if they involve the same process. In other words, notational devices are abbreviation conventions aimed at reducing several rules into one. The purpose is to present more economically the facts of language.There are notational devices like brace notation (), angled bracket notation (), changeable features or alpha notation ((), mul solicitle variable notation ((,(, ? , etc. ). The role of these devices is to make it possible for the phonologists to precisely and unambiguously state in rule form and the process that is taking place in language when a pattern is observed. Secondly, it makes linguistiscally significant generalizations and claims about the way language works. Fina lly, and perhaps most trivially, it provides a shorthand abbreviatory method by which a complex process can be captured as briefly as possible.CHAPTER TWO BASIC PHONOLOGICAL CONCEPTS 2. 0INTRODUCTION This chapter is based on the phonology of Gunganchi language. The sound inventory which involves the tonal inventory and the syllable inventory will be discussed. It also focuses on the sound distribution of Gunganchi language where the distinctive features will be discussed. 2. 1PHONOLOGY According to Davenport and Hannahs (2005 2), phonology deals with how speech sounds are organized into system for each individual language for example how the sounds can be combined, the traffic between them and how they affect each other.In phonology, the root phone relates to voice, sound and logos which means word speech originates from the Greek words. Phonology as a subfield of linguistics is the study of the rules behind the way sounds encode meaning in language. Also, it is the study of sounds and patterns in a language. It can be said that phonology seeks to discern the sounds made in all human languages. In addition, phonology studies how sounds alternate that is the minimal meaningful sounds which are PHONEMES. However, phonemes are sets of phones, which function as one unit in a language, and provide contrast between different words.It is also a sound segment of words or syllables. In human language, a phoneme is the smallest structural unit that distinguishes meaning. The phonemic inventory of a language is the set of phonemes it possesses. In the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabets), phonemes are conventionally enclosed in anterior sashes (//) and speech sounds that are not phonemes are placed in brackets ( ). For example, the /t/ sound in the English words tip, stand, cat and irrigate are conceived of as being the same sound, despite the fact that in each word they are pronounced somewhat differently the passing may not even be audible to native speakers.One of the most important tools for examining phonemes is the minimal pair which means different words but differ as a result of one sound, that is, a pair of words which differ only in one segment. In a minimal pair, one can be sure that the difference between words is phonemic in nature, because the segments in question are surrounded by the same environment and this cannot be allophones of each other. Examples of minimal pair in Gunganchi are ut(itree at(i firewood hinacow winatail uretaright(side) upetamedicine kwubanohopen kwubalohclose itamiapush igamiasweep A phoneme may encompass several recognizable different speech sounds called PHONES. In phonetics, the smallest perceptible segment is a phone. In the examples stated earlier, the /t/ in tip is aspirated th, while the /t/ in stand is unaspirated t. Thus, phones that belong to the same phonemes are called allophones such as th and t are allophones of the phoneme /t/ given in the examples given earlier. Allophones are often condi tioned by their environment.For example, the English phoneme /t/ is realized as a tap r between vowels in normal speech when not preceeding a stressed vowel as in butter. In a case like this we can say that the stop t and tap r which are allophones of the phoneme /t/ are in complementary distribution, as every environment selects for either one or the other, and the allophones themselves may be referred to as COMPLEMENTARY dispersal. 2. 2SOUND INVENTORY OF GUNGANCHI Human sounds can be grouped into two basic classes whereby they are found in Gunganchi. They are 1. Consonants 2. Vowels 2. . 1Consonants Consonants are sounds produced with an obstruction of the air race somewhere along the plainspoken tract. A consonant in terms of sound production is a sound which is obstructed in some way by the language or lip contact e. g. in Gunganchi, sounds like /k/, /p/ as in /k/(ka? inareply /p/(puteta draw a blank as opposed to the unobstructed sound of a vowel. Consonant sounds require a certain degree of constriction of the vocal tract in their production, therefore, at some point, diverting, impeding or completely shutting off the airflow of air in the oral cavity.This constriction of the vocal tract may involve complete closure or partial closure. In terms of the sound system, the consonant is a sound that typically occurs at the beginning or end of the syllable rather than in the middle of it, thus contrasting with vowels. Thus, the organs of speech that obstruct at some point in the oral cavity are known as the articulators. From the glottis, past the velum, the hard palate and alveolar ridge and the tongue, to the teeth and lips.The consonant sounds are classified by a) Voicing b) Place of vocalism c) Manner of occasion 2. 2. 1. 1 Voicing Consonants may be voiced or voiceless. As the airstream comes to or from the lungs, it passes through the opening between the glottis. If the vocal cords are open, the air passes through without obstruction and the sounds that are made in this way, are described as voiceless. If the vocal cords closed, then the air passing through the glottis causes them to vibrate producing voiced sounds.Some of the consonant sounds in Gunganchi come in pairs that differ in being voiced or voiceless e. g. /b/ and /p/ ( /b/ is voiced and /p/ is the voiceless consonant in one pair. /k/ and /g/ are found in another pair, /k/ is voiceless and the voiced sound is /g/. Also, it applied to /d/ and /t/, /d/ is voiced while /t/ is the voiceless consonant which forms another pair. 2. 2. 1. 2 Place of Articulation It is the point of articulation where both the active and passive articulators meet or contact to produce the desired consonant.Here, we have to do with the position of the tongue and lips. The places of articulation in Gunganchi are bilabial, alveolar palato-alveolar, velar, labial-velar, palatal, glottal, palatalized velars and alveolar, labialized-alveolar and velars. 2. 2. 1. 3 Manner of Articulation Manner of ar ticulation makes reference to the type of stricture which the articulators are making to produce the consonant sounds. The obstructions made may be total, intermittent, partial or narrow enough to cause friction.The manners of articulation in Gunganchi are stop, nasal, fricative, affricate, trill, lateral and approximant. However, it is observed that there is the presence of consonant clusters in Gunganchi language that is consonants occurring together side by side e. g. riaddamatchet ubalkarimale kwa take(one thing) Thus, the consonants certifyed in Gunganchi are /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /tw/ /dw/ /dj/ /k/ /g/ /kw/ /gw/ kj/ /gj/ /gb/ /r/ /m/ /n/ /s/ /z/ /(/ /h/ /hj/ /ts/ /t(/ /? // /l/ /j/ /w/ /r/. 2. 2. 2. 1 Gunganchi Consonant Chart Bilabial Alveolar Labialized Palatalize Palate-alveolar Palatal velar alveolar alveolar High + - - - - - + Low - - - + - - - Round - - - - + + + ATR + + - - - + + 2. 9. 4Segment Redundancy for Gunganchi ConsonantsRedundancy is the principle that h elps in predicting some features from the presence of other features thus, the feature that predicts the feature of the other is said to be redundant. Gunganchi language attest to a number of features that are completely predictable at all stages of derivation. All the redundant features are expressed as fill-in rule or if then. However, the output of the phonological components must specify all feature in such a way that it indicates necessary features used in derivation. i)If+ syll Then+ son cons ii)If+ cons Then+ voice strid iii)If+ ant Then+ cons iv)If+ nas Then- cont strid + voice + son 2. 9. 5Segment Redundancy for Gunganchi Vowels i e ( a ? o u High + - (-) (-) (-) - + Low (-) - - + (-) (-) (-) Round - - - (-) + + + ATR (+) + - (-) - + (+) All of the predictable redundancies can be expressed as fill-in rules which are also called if then segment structure constraints as done for consonants above. i)If+ high Then- low ii)If+ low Then- high iii)If+ high Then+ ATR iv) I f+ round Then- low v)If+ low Then- round vi)If+ low Then- ATR vii)If+ ATR Then- low viii)If- ATR Then- highHowever, redundancies come from any of two sources the first is the attempt to express the physiological possibilities (or impossibilities) of the vocal organs. For example, the constraints if + high then - low makes the claim that the tongue cannot be raised and lowered at the same time. In other words, if the tongue is raised then it is not lowered and if it is lowered then it is not raised. Since the physiological possibilities of the human vocal tract is universal to all human beings, this type of redundancy is a universal one. The second source comes from the fact that languages do not always maximally utilize all combinatorial possibilities logically judge when features come together. CHAPTER THREE PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN GUNGANCHI 3. INTRODUCTION This chapter will be discussing the phonological processes found in Gunganchi language. 3. 1PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES Phonolog ical processes are sound modifications motivated by the need to maintain euphony in a language or to rectify violations of well-formedness constraints in the production of an utterance. (Oyebade 2008 61). Segments are either within the same morpheme or at morpheme boundary under various conditions may undergo certain changes. Therefore, these changes are known as phonological processes. Environment within which sounds occur may affect changes. The phonological processes in Gunganchi are 3. 1. 1AssimilationAccording to Oyebade (2008 63), assimilation is when two contiguous sounds which have different modes of production become identical in some or all of the features of their production. Assimilation is the modification of sounds in the direction of greater similarity to the surrounding phonological environment (Langacker 1972 270). Assimilation may be either partial or total. Tonal assimilation is the converting of the changing segment to become identical to other segment and assimi lation may be partial such that only some features of the changing consonant (or vowel) becomes identical with that of the initiating segment. Examples of assimilation in Gunganchi ugikaugjkabagIn the above example, the voiced velar stop bears the feature high of the vowel i. It is observed that when the voiced velar stop occur before a high unrounded front vowel, it becomes palatalized which shows assimilation has taken place. cont+ syll ant(high__________- back cor- round + voice+ high unununumouth anuhinanuhiteeth In the examples above, vowels take on the feature of the alveolar nasal. Thus, vowel becomes nasalized before alveolar nasal. + syll- cont -cons(+ nas__________+ ant + cor + nas 3. 1. 2Vowel Elision Vowel elision is another common phonological process. According to Oyebade (2008 69), vowels are usually deleted when two or more vowels occur across morpheme boundary.When such an occurrence is introduced by morphological processes, the language may choose to drop the fi rst or the second of the contiguous vowels. Examples in Gunganchi are itsuriaakatua(itsuriakatua buy horseshoebuy (a) shoe ikabiauwapo ( ikabiuwapo money househouse rent However, it is observed that low back unrounded vowels are deleted at morpheme boundary if the next morpheme begins with a vowel. + syll+ syll + low(O___________- cons + back round 3. 1. 3Labialisation Labialisation is the super-imposition of liprounding on a segment in such a way that the feature of a vowel now attaches to the consonant articulated (Oyebade 2008 66).Examples of labializationin Gunganchi language are utw? haear rotwuaneck abakjrdwolaanimal ndwuwaperson The alveolar boodle t and d that are not naturally, they labialized take on the feature of the rounded vowels. We can therefore, say that alveolar lettuce become labialized before back rounded vowels. cont+ syll + ant(lab_____________+ back + cor+ rounded Other examples of labialization are igbagwua pepper ugwohuakolanut ribulukwucooking alokwotw osnail It is also observed that velar stops k and g become labialized before back rounded vowels. cont+ syll ant(+lab_____________+ back cor+ round 3. 1. 4PalatalisationAccording to Oyebade (2009 65), palatalisation is the super-imposition of tongue raising on a segment. Here are examples in Gunganchi language ugjikabag akjikwamillet inagjipull gjiranadescend In the above examples, velar stops are palatalized before high vowel. cont+ syll ant(+ high_____________+ high cor 3. 1. 5Insertion Oyebade (2008 74) states that Insertion is a phonological process whereby an extraneous element not present originally is introduced into the utterance usually to break up unwanted sequence. Examples in Gunganchi are shown below. upowabetatsunia(upowabetatsunia ten +oneeleven upowabetat(zuwa(upowabetat(zuwa ten +sixsixteen alosobetatsunia(alosobetatsunia twenty +onetwenty one alosobetajisoh(alosobetajisoh twenty +twotwenty two 1. 3. 6Nasalisation Nasalisation is a process whereby an oral segm ent acquires nasality from a neighbouring segment (Katamba 1989 93). Nasalisation is significant in Gunganchi, for instance matsunih? surpass ijisee tsunia one udaga stick Therefore, vowels become nasalised before alveolar nasal, that is + syll- cont cons(+ nas_____________+ ant + cor + nas CHAPTER FOUR TONAL PROCESSES AND SYLLABLE PROCESSES 4. 0INTRODUCTION This Chapter will be discussing the tone system and the processes found in Gunganchi language.It will also focus on the syllable processes in Gunganchi language. 4. 1TONE SYSTEM IN GUNGANCHI Davenport and Hannahs (2005 84-85) states that In many languages, pitch variation is used to distinguish one word from another. Languages which use pitch in this way are known as tone languages, and the individual pitch patterns associated with words or syllables are known as tones. According to Carlos and Haike (2005 12), tone languages used pitch contrasts to keep words apart in the same way that languages use vowel and consonant for this purpose. Tone is the differentiation of two words with the same segmental presentation with the use of its pitch.And a language is said to be a tone language when the differences in word meaning are signaled by the differences in pitch. Tone is essentially a property of individual syllables or words and also it is typically used as a way of distinguishing between items at word level (such as minimal pairs, words which are identical except for one component). 4. 1. 1Tone Typologies There are two categories of tone a. Level tones b. Contour tones 4. 1. 1. 1 Level Tones The tones whereby the pitch is maintained at the same rate for the duration of the syllable are known as level tones (Davenport and Hannahs 2005 85). Level tones are high, mid and low tones. These tones may occur on all syllables.The high tone is indicated by an acute mark (/), the low tone is marked with a grade accent () and the mid tone is represented as (-) or unmarked. Thus, the mid tone is not marked in Gunganch i. 4. 1. 1. 2 Contour Tones According to Davenport and Hannahs (2005 85), contour tones are tones exhibiting pitch variation during their production. Contour tones consists of the falling tone () which is a tone that starts high and end low, and the rising tone (V) which starts low and end high. Contour tones only appear on monosyllables and on the final syllables of disyllabic words. 4. 1. 2Tonal Pattern in Gunganchi Gunganchi is a tone language and it is a level tone language which attests to the high, low and mid tones. Each syllable of Gunganchi language bears a tone.Examples of words that bears the high tone in Gunganchi are kwatake(one thing) ? w? sun ribathing Occurrence of low tones in Gunganchi language can be shown in the following examples djahere riaddamatchet Occurrences of mid tones in Gunganchi are alahagw? mijaw wurumoon ajabaplantain However, there are two or more words in Gunganchi language which have exactly the same consonants and vowels but have different meanin g because of a difference in contrastive pitch. These are referred to as tonemes that contrast minimally. For instance rotwuaneckHHH rotwuabelly(externall)HHM kwubalohcover(in hand)HLH kwubalohcloseHML Co-occurrence of tones in GunganchiIn Gunganchi, the low, high and mid tones co-occur. There is the musical accompaniment of the low and mid tones, examples are ol? hanose t(ib? town hia(idust Examples of the co-occurrence of high, mid and low tones in Gunganchi are hirokwahorse ibulukw? he goat alakana(afour hundred 4. 2. 1 Functions of Tone in Gunganchi Tone performs two distinct functions, they are a) Lexical function b) Grammatical function 4. 2. 1. 1 Lexical Function Tone can be used to differentiate lexical items that have identical segments. For example in Gunganchi kwubalohcover (in hand)HLH kwubalohcloseHML rotwuabelly(external)HHM rotwuaneckHHHNote that the different tonemes have resulted in the differences in the meaning of the words above. 4. 2. 1. 2 Grammatical Function Tone is also used to differentiate between different well-formed forms. But, this function is not found in Gunganchi language. 4. 3TONAL PROCESSES As with segments, tones are also modified by their environment. Thus, this gives rise to tonal processes. 4. 3. 1 Tone Elision This occurs when two tones are juxtaposed across morpheme boundary and the final vowel of the first word gets elided causing the tone on it to be elided too. Examples in Gunganchi are ikabiauwapo(ikabiuwapohouse rent moneyhouse itsuriaakatua(itsuriakatua buyshoebuy(a) shoe 4. 3. 2 Tone StabilityIn relation to tone, the issue is that in tone languages, we rise that when a vowel desyllabifies or is deleted by some phonological rules, the tone it was bearing does not disappear, rather, it shifts its location and shows up on some other vowel. (Goldsmith197630). Example of tone stability in Gunganchi ubula alokat(i ( ubulalokat(i rainy season raintime 4. 3. 3 Tone Spreading This is a tonal process whereby there are m ore segments than tone, the tone will then spread to the segment as it is a must that the segments bear tone. This process is not found in Gunganchi language. 4. 3. 4 Floating Tone Oyebade (2008 15) says that during derivation, segment is specified for tone but merges with vowel, thus, passing its tonal specification to that vowel. Gunganchi does not have floating tone. 4. 3. 4 Tone ContractionThis is when tone segmentalization creates two identical tones on the same syllable, the two identical tones are contracted to give only one. Gunganchi language does not attest to this tonal process. However, it is observed that there is the case of nasal consonant that bears tone. Such nasal is referred to as a syllabic nasal because it is interpreted as a vowel that carries a tone. Examples of this in Gunganchi are nduwaperson nduwakabiold person In the words above, the nasal n bears the high tone which makes it to function the way other vowels functions. 4. 4SYLLABLE STRUCTURE The syllable is a supra-segmental unit. It can be easily recognized in a language.Davenport and Hannahs (2005 73) states that One such articulatorily based attempt at the definition involves the flavour of a chest pulse or initiator burst, that is, a muscular contraction in the chest (involving the lungs) which corresponds to the production of a syllable each syllable, on this view, involves one burst of muscular energy. Williamson (1984) defines the syllable as the smallest unit of language which can be pronounced. It is a unit of sound made up of one or more segments during which there is a single chest pulse and a single peak of sonority. Hyman (1975 188) states that a syllable is made up of an infringement, and a sum of money. And the core is further divided into a peak and coda. However, a syllable is divided into three parts 1) The onset 2) The core or nucleus 3) The coda The syllable can be represented thus Syllable OnsetCorePeak (Nucleus)Coda C V(C) This can be illustrated in the exam ple in Gunganchi below joh stand (up) ( OnsetCore ConsonantPeakCoda (Nucleus) JVowel(Consonant) ( h The syllable coda and onset are made up of consonant segments while the peak is made up of vowel segment and syllabic consonants. The peak is an obligatory part of the syllable, thus, there must be a peak. The onset (beginning) and coda (end) which usually consist of consonant(s) are optional parts of the syllable. Each syllable carries at least one significant unit of tone in tonal languages. 4. 4. 1 Types of Syllable A syllable can be either an open syllable or closed syllable.It is language specific some languages may exhibit either of the two syllable types while some languages make use of the two (open and closed syllables) like Gunganchi language. 4. 4. 1. 1Open Syllable This is a syllable in which words end in a vowel, it is a syllable without the coda. Examples in Gunganchi are ububaleaf akahojvillage babichildren hilelioelephant 4. 4. 1. 2 Closed Syllable Closed syllable is a syllable typology that has at least one consonant following the vowel or closing the nucleus. Examples are lakapitwohold(opp. new) kakawpour rimonohwork Gunganchi attests to both the open and closed syllable. 4. 5SYLLABLE STRUCTURE RULE IN GUNGANCHI This is the rule that states the possible sequence of sounds or segment in a syllable.Words differ with regard to the number of syllables contained in them. Some words have just one syllable, others may have two or more, hence, words are classified as being monosyllabic, disyllabic, trisyllabic and polysyllabic depending on how many syllable(s) such words have. The syllable structures in Gunganchi are CV VCV N- Syllable Structure Cw- Syllable Structure Cj- Syllable Structure 4. 5. 1 CV-Syllable Structure The CV-syllable structure is the most common type of syllable structure in Gunganchi. It is mostly found in monosyllabic and disyllabic or trisyllabic and polysyllabic. 4. 5. 1. 1 CV-Structure in Monosyllabic Monosyllabic is a word havi ng a single syllable.For instance, in Gunganchi djahere 4. 5. 1. 2 CV-Structure in Disyllabic Disyllabic is a word consisting of two syllables. For example nanacome ribathing riwocorpse hinobee 4. 5. 1. 3 CV-Structure in Trisyllabic A word consisting of three syllables is called trisyllabic. Examples of such words in Gunganchi language are rihamafood rirogwocassava rigwulaknife hi(ahohawk 4. 5. 1. 4 CV-Structure in Polysyllabic Polysyllabic is a word consisting of more than three syllables. Examples in Gunganchi language are ribulukwucooking hamatsaromaize rit(at(? puachin ri(iteitwohat/cap 4. 5. 2 VCV-Syllable StructureExamples of VCV-syllable structure in Gunganchi language are illustrated below uwidie ut(aguest(stranger) ubichild ut? father 4. 5. 3 N-Syllable Structure This type of syllable is a syllabic-nasal. It will be interpreted as a vowel because like a vowel, the syllabic nasal carries at tone. In Gunganchi, examples are nduwaperson nduwakabiold person ndukamiman 4. 5. 4 C w-Syllable Structure The CwV structure in Gunganchi includes the following hitsokwutsoguinea fowl ukwuluroom mutwoashes 4. 5. 5 Cj-Syllable Structure Examples in Gunganchi language are inagjipull (ikjitwolearn gjiranadescend CHAPTER FIVESUMMARY, FINDINGS/OBSERVATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 5. 0SUMMARY This research work has examined the phonological aspects of Gunganchi language. Words are said to be well-patterned and the principles of well-formedness are followed. The method used for the data collection in this research work is the direct translation method from English language to Gunganchi language based on the Ibadan 400 word-list. There was a direct interview with the informant, thus, data elicitation was carried out. The message of using the illuminating data is to be able to make linguistically significant generalizations. This project work is divided into five chapters.Chapter one is the introductory part which dealt with the general background of Gunganchi people , their sociocultural profile, genetic classification of the language, the scope and organization of study, review of the chosen theoretical framework, data collection and data analysis. Chapter two of this work examined the basic phonological concepts. The sound inventory which involves the tonal inventory and syllable inventory of Gunganchi language was discussed, also, their sound distributions whereby the distinctive features was examined. The third chapter then discussed phonology itself, thus, examined the phonological processes in Gunganchi language. Meanwhile, the phonological processes found in Gunganchi language are assimilation, nasalisation, labialisation, palatalisation, insertion and vowel elision. However, the phonological rules were also accounted for.Chapter four of this work discussed the tonal and syllable processes. These processes were well examined with illuminating examples from Gunganchi language. Finally, chapter five summarized the work. It also made observ ations, recommendations and conclusion. 5. 1FINDING/OBSERVATIONS Majority of Gunganchi speakers also speak Hausa language and it is observed that some words in Gunganchi are borrowed from Hausa language. Gunganchi language attests to both open syllable structure and closed syllable structure. Also, when some words in Gunganchi occur across morpheme boundary, the last vowel of the first word gets deleted. There is the case of consonant cluster in Gunganchi language which is another observation.It was also observed that Gunganchi attest to the level tones (high, mid, low) and these tones co-occur in words. Finally, there are some words in Gunganchi that differs as a result of tone which is tonemic contrast. 5. 2RECOMMENDATIONS Through this research, useful insight has been drawn from the phonological aspects of Gunganchi language. As a matter of fact, the language has not been exposed to thorough linguistic scrutiny. There is need for linguists to focus their attention more on the lan guage. This project has studied the aspects of the phonology of Gunganchi language. I hereby recommend that linguists should shed more feeble on this aspect and other aspects of Gunganchi language. Researchers who would like to research further onGunganchi will find this research work a reliable reference. 5. 3CONCLUSION Some aspects of the phonology of Gunganchi language have been surveyed. For want of space and time, it has not been possible to treat all aspects of the language. However, I hope this study will inspire further research in the language. REFERENCES Carlos, G. and Haike, J. (2005). Understanding Phonology (2nd Edition). Great Britain Hodder Arnold. Goldsmith, J. (1976). Autosegmental Phonology. MIT DIssertion IVLC, New York Grandland Press. Hyman, L. M. (1975). Phonology Theory and Analysis. New York Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Katamba, F. (1989). An Introduction to Phonology.New York Longman Inc. Langacker, R. W. (1972). Fundamentals of Linguistic Analysis. New York Harcourt Brace, Javanovich Inc. Mike, D. and Hannahs, S. J. (2005). Introducing Phonetics and Phonology (2nd Edition). India Replika Press Pvt. Ltd. Oyebade (2008). A Course in Phonology (2nd Edition). Ijebu-Ode Shebiotimo Press. Oxford (2006). Advanced Learners Dictionary (7TH Edition). Oxford. Oxford University Press. Pike, K. L. (1943). Phonetic. Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press. Pike, K. L. (1948). Tone Languages. Ann Arbor Michigan University Press. Welmers, W. E. (1973). African Language Structures. Los Angeles University of California Press.

Martin Luther King Essay

Martin Luther queen regnant Jr was born in January 15th, 1929 in Atlanta, Georgia. His parents were martin Luther King Sr and Alberta Williams King. His father was ab initio called Michael King, but after they traveled to Germany, he changed his name to Martin Luther after a German protestant leader Martin Luther. He got married to Coretta Scott in June 1953 in his hometown Alabama. They got 4 children. Martin Luther king Jr. became a pastor at an age of 25 in Dexter Avenue Baptist church in Montgomery, Alabama.Since Martin Luther King Jr grew up in Atlanta, he schooled at Booker T. Washington High School. Since he was an outstanding student, he skipped 9th and 12th grade and then proceeded to Morehouse College at an age 15 years. In 1948, the King graduated from Morehouse College with a degree in sociology. He later enrolled in Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester, Pennsylvania where he got his second degree in bachelor of divinity in 1951. He did his doctoral studies at Boston University and graduated in the year 1955 with a doctor philosophy degree (Rosenberg, 1995).Martin Luther king was the driving force behind the civil rights movements of the 1960s. He organized peaceful marches to protest against segregation and racial injustices against the opaques in America. His speech of 1963 I cede a Dream which was directed against peace and racial equality stands out to be one of the most powerful speeches in American history (White, 2010). His efforts to manage equality in America led to expression of his view that all subdued Americans and former(a) disadvantaged groups should receive compensations for the wrongs done to them in the past.He declared further that giving black Americans equality could not bring them to the same level as the whites in terms of economic achievements (Brown, 1996). He clarified that he was not trying to recover the lost wages during slavery, but just proposed a government compensatory scheme of about $ 50 billion for a flo w of ten years to the disadvantaged groups. The King went further and presented this proposal as an application to the common law and clarified that all disadvantaged groups from all races should mankind assistance (Saul, 2010).Martin Luther king used sermons and speeches to fight for the rights of the disadvantaged groups. Throughout his career as a pastor, he wrote articles and spoke fluently. His efforts to fight for justice are also open up in his writings, for example his letter from Birmingham jail which he wrote in 1963. Martin received a Nobel peace prize in 14th October, 1964 for having led non- blood-red peace protests against racial inequality. He became the youngest recipient of such an award (Rosenberg, 1995).There were laws which were famously known as Jim Crows laws which prohibited black Americans from boarding buses which were meant for the whites. The blacks were also supposed to leave seat to whites whenever the bus was full. In March 1955, there was a case of a school girl who refused to leave her seat to a white man in accordance with Jim Crows Laws. Martin Luther king happened to be in the Birmingham African American committee which was supposed to preside over the case. Martin and his colleagues dropped the case.In December the same year, another black woman was arrested for refusing to give out her seat. These events led to the organization of Montgomery bus boycott of 1955. It was organized by Nixon and led by Martin. The boycott remained for about 385 eld and a lot of tension built up which led to bombing of the kings house. The boycott led to the arrest of King when he was campaigning. The arrest effected in a ruling by the United States district court that ended racial discrimination on all Montgomery public buses (Brown, 1996).In 1957, king and other civil rights activists formed southern Christian leadership conference. The main objective for the formation of the organization was to connect the moral authority and the organi zing authority of black churches to carryout non violent protests in the service of civil rights reform. Martin Luther King was the leader of this organization till his death. King widely employed Gandhis non violent tactics in his campaigns to moderate the civil rights laws which were used in Alabama (Brown, 1996).Martin Luther knew that properly organized non violent protests opposing the system of southern segregation popularly known as Jim Crows laws would result in wide media coverage of the struggle of the black Americans for equality and voting rights. Media coverage on each day deprivation and indignities directed to the southern blacks and effect and harassment from the segregationist to the civil rights activists and marchers resulted into a wind of sympathetic public opinion that made majority of Americans understand that civil rights movement was the contentious let go of in American politics in early1960s.Still on his campaign trail, King went to Memphis, Tennessee o n March 29th 1968 to support black sanitary public workers who were on strike demanding better wages and equal treatment. On his way to Memphis, his flight was delayed due to bomb threat. On 3rd April 1968, king delivered a speech at the world headquarters of the church of God in Christ. Martin was assassinated at 601 pm in April 4th, 1968 while at the balcony of Lorraine motel (Saul, 2010). resultMartin Luther King is fondly remembered by the American people and the world as a whole for having dedicated his entire life to fight for the right of the oppressed. nigh of his efforts delivered fruits and black Americans and other disadvantaged groups got rights and liberty. Each year on the third Monday in January, his birthday is celebrated. It is the first national holiday dedicated to a black American. References Brown, M. (1996). Martin Luther King Jr. Retrieved on February 8, 2010 from http//www. lib. lsu. edu/hum/mlk/srs216. html Rosenberg, P.(1995). Martin Luther King A Differ ent Drum Major. Retrieved on February 8, 2010 from http//www. hartford-hwp. com/archives/45a/002. html Saul, M. (2010). President Obama, other leaders recall Rev. Martin Luther King and his Achievements. Retrieved on February 8, 2010 from http//www. nydailynews. com/news/national/2010/01/19/2010-01- 19_recalling_king_and_his_deeds. html White, D. (2010). Wise & Prophetic Words of Martin Luther King, Jr. Retrieved on February 8, 2010 from http//usliberals. about. com/od/patriotactcivilrights/a/MLKWords. htm.

The Market for Online Education

IntroductionTraditional computer programme line is designed around face-to-face communication in a physical classroom. Educational institutions ar required to be for costly inputs, the costs of which be spread out everywhere a limited number of students. It is no surprise then that this preparation deli precise model has produced a 550% increase in the cost of tuition at U.S. universities since 1985 (Vella, 2012). In addition to this, most universities are run by non-profit trusts or governments, where there is little pressure to innovate and richly utilize the physical and intellectual resources of the institution. With this backdrop, online courses are advanceing low-cost learning alternatives, which are customized for condition aims of customers, and are acquirable without regard to space and time for different groups of customers worldwide. Over time, attitudes of students and employers towards online reading are also improving. Finally, unused hidden companies are coming up to offer customized terminations often backed by smirch computing platforms, though they still lack the brand recognition of traditionalistic universities.This paper will examine the limitations of traditional educational methods and explore sources of demand and supply of online education with a view towards how modern business models much(prenominal) as crowdsourcing and technology infrastructures such as cloud computing are creating transfigure in online education (Weld et al., 2012).Evolution of Online EducationTraditional education delivery in thousands of universities globally is designed around transferral of knowledge from teachers to students via face-to-face, lecture based interaction in physical classrooms. At the outset, this imposes the limit of physical capacity of the classroom on the number of individuals who squeeze out recruit in the class. In comparison, recent advances in information and communication technologies have enabled alternative onli ne education delivery mechanisms, which can optimize educational delivery in a cost-efficient manner for a vauntingly number of users. Online education can be watchd as a new social shape which utilizes digital technology to partially or fully substitute traditional classroom learning methods, optimized for learners without the barriers of a traditional educational setup (Hiltz & Turoff, 2006). Allen and Seaman (2013) define online education to endure courses where at least 80% of the course content is delivered online. These courses are delivered over the Internet and include significant use of digital media, entropy storage and communication technologies such as computer-assisted instruction, group communications, use of immersive simulations, gaming and asynchronous learning networks, collaborative knowledge systems and use of wireless and handheld devices.Online education offers different sets of opportunities to different organisations and individuals. For existing educat ional institutions, it offers a way to increase enrolment or reach a different type of audience such as corporate training. For start-ups looking to shake up the education industry, it offers the opportunity to compete with traditional universities on different bases of competition, such as price, program duration or class timing. For others, it offers the opportunity for lifelong learning or the opportunity to learn from professors of top universities.Surveys show that the number of students fetching online learning courses is on the rise. Allen and Seaman (2013) report that the total number of students in the U.S. taking at least 1 online course during 2012 has increased to 6.7 million, representing 32% of the total student universe of discourse of 21 million students. In an endorsement of the online learning platform, 77% of academic leaders believe that online learning leads to better learning outcomes than face-to-face instruction. On the major(ip) obstacles that are holding back the growth of online education, the authors believe that most faculty members still do not have a positive view closely online learning. 40% believe employers have reservations about online degrees.Product OfferingsOnline education is influencing different tiers of the marketplace in different ways. Firstly, in traditional universities, more and more fully online classes are being upriseed, and technology is finding its way into more traditional classes as well. Many universities now offer online only classes for their students. In addition, universities such as Georgia Tech are creating tailor made degrees for corporations such as AT&T. This setup benefits the university which gets an extra revenue stream and also AT&T which gets high-end skills training for its employees on the job (Kitroeff, 2014). In addition, any(prenominal) new, non-traditional universities have also been set up. These online universities, such as the University of Phoenix, replicate the existing un iversity model but without a physical campus, utilizing online content delivery.A different model has also been developed by some traditional universities such as MIT and Stanford. In partnership with private start-up companies such as Coursera and EdX, these institutions are putting together free classes open to global masses known as massive open online courses (MOOC). These courses are available to all the students in the world who have Internet access and some of these classes boast registrations in hundreds of thousands. Currently, nearly 3% of institutions of higher education in the US are offering MOOCs while another 10% are in the planning process of offering MOOCs (Allen & Seaman, 2013). Coursera is also expanding into China with its more than 1 million online learners (Larson, 2014). However, it is not clear how MOOC offerings will be financed (Anderson, 2012). The author points out that giving away content for free usually never turns out to be undecomposed business mode l. Suggestions for revenue generation include subscription and charging employers who want to hire successful students. Another issue is how to ascertain the identity and actual completion of work by a given individual. Udacity, another start-up has devised a solution by offering physical testing facilities in different countries where students can take certification exams in a supervised environment.While they are becoming increasingly popular, MOOCs offer limited customization. In comparison, some start-up education companies are exploring the idea of customized learning enabled by crowdsourcing. Crowdsourcing is a term which defines the development of an online community whose physically dispersed members may be called upon to provide results online to a given problem. One limitation of MOOCs is that leveling assignments of hundreds of thousands of students requires victimization automated software product, which can only grade multiple choice problems. This solution does not wo rk very well in the humanities and social sciences. A crowdsourcing-based solution is to use peer evaluation for this purpose.These learning environments also deploy other technology enabled learning techniques such as using software to analyse common mistakes made by large groups with the highest frequency. Significant insights can be gained into human learning from observing such errors and analyzing their causes. Other automated software agents can crawl the web for useful resources pertaining to the course and collect it on a new website. Additional functionalities that can be offered by machine learning systems include services that link students with particular needs with tutors with skills suitable for teaching those subjects.Role of technology in the online education ecosystemCentral to this paradigm shift in education is the Internet and technology revolution. A key enabling innovation in this regard is the development of a low-cost services model known as cloud computing. Cloud computing is an umbrella terms which describes how computers, servers, and applications and processes on those servers can be networked together in a distributed computing platform to create climbable infrastructure which enables users to connect from anywhere and using any device. Cloud computing may be considered an extension of Service Oriented Architecture (SOA), which is a software design which makes it easy for computers on a network to cooperate. An institution or group of institutions that gets together to develop a cloud computing based platform needs to develop content and services that can reside inside the cloud since not all applications are cloud enabled (Mircea & Andreescu, 2011).Cloud computing is a way of designing a network in blocks, not all of which need to be owned or operated by one university. Instead some components of infrastructure, or the platform or the software or even the computing power itself may be owned and managed by service providers who a llow the university to pay for them on an ongoing, pay-per-use basis (Matthew, 2012). Cloud enabled service delivery enables access to educational content by anyone, anywhere on a pay-per-use basis, thus enabling deployment of ascendable educational services. If a substantial number of users exist, the cost per user and thus the fee charged to the user can be demeaned substantially compared to traditional educational institutions (Moore, 2011). This can have several other advantages for institutions as well. For example, institutions can combine resources with others to share a cloud, and then focus on content understructure to focus on their strength and outsourcing the IT services to a large degree.The new business models will begin with market need identification, and then deploying a solution to meet that need, offering a high return on investment (ROI). A major university offering a global MOOC would need a very different platform than a commercial service offering English a s Second Language in China and cloud computing would allow each to have the right cost and infrastructure for the size of the opportunity. A lot of effort is going into the development of each of the elements of online education. These include digital books, grading software, intelligent software agents, cloud computing infrastructure and tablets. Amazon is also selling more digital books than paper books and it is now even possible for students taking online classes to rent their textbooks for limited time (Schuetze, 2011).Through its success, online education seems to be substituting traditional education (Mehaffy, 2012). This phenomenon has been labelled by Christensen & Eyring (2011) as the process of disruption. degenerate technologies are championed by new companies which do not compete with the incumbents along the existing bases of competition, but offer new and often low-cost product to a previously underserved group of consumers. Once successful in their niches, they incr ease volume, improve product quality and unseat incumbents in the high end of the market. Alternatively, disruption forces incumbents to change their business models.One of the reasons the education market seems ripe for disruption is the high cost of university education which makes the high-end of the market out of reach for many students. Some of the new business models in online education offer lower cost alternatives for those average students. In response, several mainstream universities are already considering lowering the residency requirement of their degrees to lower the total cost of earning them, while considering how to improve their online courses. While it may be too early to predict how successful they will be, for now the online education market seems set to grow globally.ConclusionIn conclusion, it can be said that online education is a powerful business model because it can service large underserved segments of the education market at low average cost (Gaytan, 200 7). It is a solution for those who could previously not afford the high cost of education or may only need to develop certain job related skills or they may be lifelong learners. Deployment of digital content and software over a cloud enabled distributed computing network is the first step towards infrastructure development required for online learning platforms. More high-quality content is required together with tricksy business models to take online education to the next level of success.Recommendations While they do not face any immediate threats, existing educational institutions will need to adapt their business models in order to not become obsolete. At a minimum, they should consider ways of reducing their cost without diluting the experience. Traditional universities have a strong competitive advantage they offer a period of residence in an academic community. This is difficult to replicate for online institutions. Online universities should consider partnerships for reve nue and content communion with traditional institutions in order to build their brands quicker. Without brand acceptance, they will never be able to compete with traditional universities. Start-ups should focus on helping develop those innovations that increase the return on investment in new business models for educational service providers to encourage innovation and investment in technology keep online education. BibliographyAllen, I. E., & Seaman, J. 2013. Changing Course Ten Years of Tracking Online Education in the United States. Sloan Consortium. PO Box 1238, Newburyport, MA 01950.Anderson, N. 2012. Elite education for the masses. The Washington Post, 4.Christensen, C. M., & Eyring, H. J. 2011. The innovative university Changing the DNA of higher education from the inside out. John Wiley & Sons.Conn, S. S., & Reichgelt, H. 2012. Cloud Computing in Support of Applied Learning A Baseline speculate of Infrastructure Design at Southern Polytechnic State University. In Proceedi ngs of the Information Systems Educators Conference ISSN (Vol. 2167, p. 1435).Gaytan, J. 2007. Visions shaping the future of online education Understanding its historic evolution, implications, and assumptions. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 10(2).Hiltz, S. R., & Turoff, M. 2005. Education goes digital The evolution of online learning and the revolution in higher education. Communications of the ACM,48(10), 59-64.Larson, C. 2014. Courseras plan for online education elaborateness in China. Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved on 28 October, 2014 from http//www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-10-27/coursera-ceo-richard-levin-plans-to-expand-the-company-in-china.Kitroeff, N. 2014. Why AT&T is investing in virtual school. Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved on 28 October, 2014 from http//www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-10-24/at-and-t-and-former-google-vp-back-georgia-tech-online-degree-program.Mathew, S. 2012. Implementation of Cloud Computing in Education A Revoluti on. International Journal of Computer Theory and Engineering, 4(3), 473 475.Mehaffy, G. L. 2012. Challenge and change. Educause Review, 47(5), 25-42.Mircea, M., & Andreescu, A. I. 2011. Using cloud computing in higher education A strategy to improve agility in the current financial crisis. Communications of the IBIMA, 2011, 1-15.Moore, J. C. 2012. A Synthesis of Sloan-C Effective Practices, December 2011. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 16(1), 91-115.Schuetze, C. F. 2011. Textbooks finally take a big leap to digital. The New York Times.Vella, M. (2012). Is higher education doomedFortune. Retrieved on October 28, 2014 from http//fortune.com/2012/07/18/is-higher-education-doomed/.Yuan, L., Powell, S., & CETIS, J. 2013. MOOCs and open education Implications for higher education. Cetis White Paper.Weld, D. S., Adar, E., Chilton, L., Hoffmann, R., Horvitz, E., Koch, M., & Mausam, M. 2012. Personalized online educationa crowdsourcing challenge. In Workshops at the Twenty-Sixt h AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence.

Review of the Financial Statements of Merck and Novartis Companies

In module 2 case study I am to do the side by side(p) understanding financial reports and continue to review the financial statements of Merck and Novartis to learn additional selective information. The emphasis of this Case is to review the income statement, balance bed sheet and computation of proportionalitys. Review the financial statements for the companies and answer the following questions for the last reporting year What components of noteholders b belyness does each of the companies own?Merck & Comp whatsoever IncThe components of the computer storageholders equity common stock-taking (authorized and issued), other paid-in capital, retained earnings, accumulated other comprehensive loss, and treasury stock. Novartis International Ag. The components of the stockholders equity are dower capital, treasury shares, reserves, and non-controlling lodge in. Do the companies have preferred stock shares outstanding? If so, what special features do these shares contain? M erck & family Inc. Merck has authorized 20,000,000 shares of preferred stock in 2012.All preferred stock from the AMI a merger in 1998 is universe converted to either cash or shares of Merck stock. Novartis International Ag. Novartis did not report any preferred stock. Do either of the companies report treasury shares? If so, do the companies tell the reason for reacquiring the shares? Merck & conjunction Inc. Yes Merck reported treasury shares they reported the purchase of treasury shares on the balance sheet in the equity section and also on the summary of common stock and treasury stock transactions.In this case no they didnt disclose any reasons for reacquiring shares other than those from the merger. Novartis International Ag. Yes Novartis reported treasury share No they did not disclose reasons for reacquiring shares Income Statement. What are the basic and diluted earnings per share for each company? Merck & Company Inc. Basic earnings per common stock $2. 03 Diluted earn ings per common stock $2. 00 Novartis International Ag. Basic earnings per common stock $3. 93. Diluted earnings per common stock $3. 89Have the companies reported any discontinued operations? Merck & Company Inc Merck has not reported any discontinued operations Novartis International Ag. Novartis reported no discontinued operations for 2012. Do the companies disclose any stock compensation plans? If so, are they reporting such(prenominal) plans under the fair value or intrinsic value methods? What was the value of compensation outgo measured for any outstanding stock option plans? Merck & Company Inc. Yes they are reporting under the fair value method.The value of the compensation expense measured was approximately $72 million to the holders and $4 million Merck common shares issued. Novartis International Ag. Novartis did not disclose any stock compensation plans Financial Ratios Compute the following ratios. Also, interpret and assess each group of ratios for the company. What type of story are the ratios telling the analyst? Profitability ratios ? Gross profit margin = Gross income/sales. The blunt profit margin is a financial ratio which is a measurement of a companys manufacturing and distribution efficiency during the production process.A company uses its gross income to fund such company activities as research and development and marketing, which are important for generating future sales. A prolonged decline in the gross profit margin is a red flag for possible impending negative pressure on sales and, ultimately, earnings. You need to know the trend of the company before you can dedicate an analysis of whether or not the gross profit margin is good or not, in this case Novartis has a better gross profit than Merck. Merck & Company Inc. 8,739/47,267 = . 185 Novartis International Ag. 11,243/56,673 = . 198?Net profit margin = Net income/ sale Net profit is the profit that is generated from all phases of the business, including interest and taxes. T his is the bottom line that garners most of the attending in discussions of a companys profitability. The net profit margin (net margin) compares net income to sales. A consistently high net margin is often indicatory of a company with one or more competitive advantages. Furthermore, a high net margin provides a company with a cushion during downturns in its business. In this case Novartis has a better net profit margin than Merck.Merck & Company Inc. 6,299/47,267 = . 133 Novartis International Ag. 9,618/56,673 = . 170 ? Return on stockholders equity = net income/ shareholders equity Return on equity (ROE) is equal to a fiscal years net income. It measures the rate of return on the ownership interest of the common stock owners and measures a companys efficiency at generating profits from every unit of shareholders equity. Return on equity for most companies certainly should be in the double digits investors often insure for 15% or higher, while return of 20% or more is considered excellent.Neither of these companies is great for their ROE but they are close, Novartis being higher. Merck & Company Inc. 6,299/53,020 = . 119 (12%) Novartis International Ag. 9,618/69,219 = . 139 (14%) liquidness ratios ? Current ratio = current assets/current liabilities The current ratio is a financial ratio that measures whether or not a firm has enough resources to gestate its debts over the next 12 months. While Merck is able to pay back its debt, Novartis can pay its debt more easily and have a lot remaining over. Merck & Company Inc 34,857/18,348 = 1. 900.Novartis International Ag124,216/30,946 = 4. 013 ? Quick ratio= current assets-inventory/current liabilities Generally, the quick ratio should be 11 or higher save this varies widely by industry. In general, the higher the ratio is, the greater the companys liquidity (i. e. , the better able to meet current obligations using liquid assets). The quick ratio is also known as acid test ratio. Both companies have a quick ratio but Novartis has a better quick ratio than Merck. Merck & Company Inc. 34,857-7,305/18,348 = 1. 501 Novartis International Ag. 124,216-6,744/30,946 = 3. 796?Inventory turnover = COGS/Inventory The inventory turnover is a measure of the number of times inventory is sold or utilise in a time period such as a year. Merck & Company Inc Inventory not specified on the 10K. Novartis International Ag. 18,756/6,744 = 2. 781. Leverage ratios ? Debt-to-assets= gibe debt/ bestow assets Debt to asset ratio is a financial ratio that indicates the percentage of a companys assets that are provided via debt. Novartis has a lower debt than Merck. Merck & Company Inc. 18,348 + 16,348 = 34,696 34,696/106,132 = . 327Novartis International Ag5,945/124,216 = . 048 ? Debt-to-equity= total debt/total shareholders equity The debt to equity ratio, usually abbreviated as D/E, is a financial ratio indicating the relative proportion of shareholders equity and debt used to pay a companys assets. Novarti s used fewer loans to finance the companys assets than Merck. Merck & Company Inc. 34,696/536,020 = . 065. Novartis International Ag. 5,945/69,219 = . 086 ? Times-covered ratio= earnings before interest and taxes/ interest Times interest earned (TIE) is a measure of a companys ability to honor its debt payments.The times interest earned ratio is also referred to as the interest coverage ratio. Merck & Company Inc. Only had a consolidated statements of income Novartis International Ag. Only had a consolidated statements of income What type of information do you find in footnotes to the financial statements? Additional information provided in a companys financial statements. Notes to the financial statements report the details and additional information that are left out of the main reporting documents, such as the balance sheet and income statement.This is done mainly for the sake of clarity because these notes can be quite long, and if they were included, they would cloud the data r eported in the financial statements. Do you find the balance sheet, income statement or other measures such as ratios the most informative? Comment on the advantages and disadvantages of using ratios for analysis. I find that the balance sheet and the income statement have the standings of how the company did per quarter but the ratios show comparison of how they did. The ratios are good because you breakdown all the big numbers and just use percentages and analysis what is important.The balance sheets show the breakdown of all the individual accounts consolidated so both are good. A disadvantage of depending on the statements are that they can mislead you indifferent ways, if you only look at the numbers and do not look at the foot notes you may make a bad decision. Bad information can also be given through the statements, although this is illegal people still do it and later on modify it or say it was a mistake but you may not catch that. Ratios can also have disadvantages like i f they are not computed correctly you may have the wrong percentages or you may have nothing to compare them to.